On April 18, 1906, an 7.9 magnitude earthquake hit the San Francisco Bay Area. The city was devastated, more than 3000 people were killed and over 80% of the city was destroyed. Shaking from the quake was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles and as far inland as central Nevada. Amazingly, just four days before, a ride down Market Street was recorded showing a busy, vibrant downtown. No-one could have known of the devastation to come. Fences, roads, and even buildings were offset as much as 20 feet in seconds.
Beyond the physical and human cost, almost 75% of the entire city population were left homeless. What many forget is that it was the subsequent fires in the city that caused even more damage. Fires burned for days, accounting for over 80% of the total destruction. The damage in today’s dollars was about $10 billion.
But the resilience of the citizens was clear – their “we will rebuild” optimism was prevalent, and the reconstruction led to new neighborhoods and buildings that stand today. Some of us at AHP experienced the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake and, while the damage was nothing like the 1906 quake, we witnessed people coming together in the same spirit to help the region recover. Natural disasters and national catastrophes tend to bring out the best in us and it did 119 years ago today.
Today marks the 235th anniversary of Ben Franklin’s death on April 17, 1790. How can anyone sum up the life of this giant of a man in just a few paragraphs? He is one of the most legendary men in American history, and deservedly so. The list of his accomplishments is a long one: inventor, printer, writer, humorist, philosopher, postmaster, diplomat, congressman, military leader, and— during his decades in England and France—a social butterfly who hobnobbed with the elites of European society, especially the ladies of the French aristocracy. He may be more famous for his inventions that for having helped write the Declaration of Independence—for two hundred years, it seems, our school children have learned about his experiments with electricity, and the famous episode of him flying a kite to draw lightning. Among his many inventions was the “Franklin stove,” which warmed the homes of countless Americans. He also was responsible for installing the first street lights in Philadelphia, his adopted home. His contributions to the betterment of all Americans are incalculable.
What of His Personal Life?
His family was of modest means, and could only afford 2 years of schooling for young Ben. At age 12 he went to work as an apprentice, and at age 17 he left home for Philadelphia, where he quickly distinguished himself for his skills as a printer and newspaperman. Also very quickly, he met 15 year old Deborah Read, who became his common law wife. They had two children, Frances and Sarah. On a sour note, Ben also had fathered an illegitimate son, William, who became part of the Franklin household and was raised by Deborah as her own. When Ben went to Europe for years at a time, Deborah did not go with him. She died in Philadelphia in 1774 while Ben was engaged in his ambassadorial duties abroad; although he knew she was sick, he chose to stay abroad. Ben never remarried, and he became estranged from his son William, who became a staunch Loyalist during the Revolution; they never reconciled.
Remembering Benjamin Franklin Today
Today, we have many daily reminders of Ben Franklin’s importance to our nation’s history. Since 1914, his face has graced our $100 bill. In 1948, the U.S. mint began minting a half-dollar coin with his image on it. And, of course, there are countless buildings, schools, roads, and other public places named after him. He remains one of the most revered figures in American history, and for that we honor him today.
As Americans commemorate the 250th anniversary of the start of our American Revolution in 1775— most memorably the anniversary of the Battle of Lexington and Concord next month– there are actually a number of key events the American people should be remembering and honoring. One of the most iconic moments in the Revolutionary War era took place in March 1775: a speech given by the famed Virginian, Patrick Henry, to a packed house at St. John’s Church in Richmond, Virginia. The day was March 23, and the occasion was a meeting of the Second Virginia Convention. It was the fourth day of the convention, and Henry was there to petition the Virginia Colony’s political leaders to make ready for war against Great Britain. This was one of the most important moments in the history of our country in the years leading up to the Revolution, which we’ll discuss in due course. But let us digress for a moment, and discuss Patrick Henry the man, and some of the main events that shaped his later thinking about liberty, justice, and independence.
Background
The story of Henry’s early years in Virginia is briefly summarized. He was born in 1736 on his family’s farm in Hanover County, Virginia. He was of Scottish descent, and his father John Henry was well educated; thus, Patrick was largely home-schooled. While engaged in various trades and business pursuits—including operating a tavern– Patrick studied law, and ultimately he received his law license in 1760 at the age of 24. His law practice brought him a good income, and good experience in public speaking before judges and juries. Over time, Henry became well-known for his oratorial skills, and his defense of individual liberties in various court cases. Soon, he became acquainted with several of the leading political leaders in Virginia, including Peyton Randolph, the future President of America’s First Continental Congress. It was through these relationships that his political career was launched.
1765: The Stamp Act Controversy
Henry’s political career began in earnest when he was elected to Virginia’s House of Burgesses in May 1765, representing Louisa County. This was just weeks after the English Parliament had passed the infamous Stamp Act, and the American colonies were in a rebellious mood. The timing of his election was propitious– Henry immediately threw himself into the political debates over the Stamp Act. When the House of Burgesses met in Williamsburg on May 29, he stood up and launched a full-throated attack on Parliament, and he strongly advocated that Virginians should refuse to abide by the Act. While no transcript of that speech survives, first-hand accounts confirm that Henry went far beyond a mere “remonstrance.” Indeed, he was quoted as saying “if this be treason, make the most of it!”
Henry’s speech made him a star. The resolutions he proposed in opposition to the Stamp Act were mostly approved by the Burgesses, setting an example for other colonies to follow. News of Virginia’s forceful rejection of the Stamp Act soon reached the other colonies, and by August the news had reached England, where Members of Parliament reacted with dismay; they repealed the Act the following Spring. Thus, a decade before the Revolutionary War commenced in 1775, Patrick Henry already had set the colonies on a course for independence through his provocative stance against the Stamp Act in 1765.
1774: Conflicts with Lord Dunmore
Over the ensuing years, Henry’s opposition to Britain’s attempt to regulate the colonies hardened, and by 1773-74, he had become part of a “Committee of Correspondence” in Virginia, the purpose of which was to communicate and share information with political leaders of the other colonies. After the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, and passage of the “Coercive Acts” of 1774, Henry became fully radicalized. He took the lead in bringing together a group of burgesses who pushed back against Virginia’s royal Governor, Lord Dunmore. In reaction, Dunmore abruptly dissolved the House of Burgesses in order to shut down any organized resistance. But Henry and his allies would not be deterred, and over the next three years (1774-76) they held five different conventions, including a few that took place after war broke out in April 1775.
Sept-Oct. 1774: The First Continental Congress
In the meantime, Henry was elected to be a delegate to the First Continental Congress that met in Philadelphia in 1774. Henry distinguished himself at the Convention, so much so that one of the leaders of the Congress, Silas Deane, described him as “the compleatest speaker I ever heard.” The First Continental Congress finished its work in October 1774, without reaching a consensus on the main question: should America seek a compromise, or seek independence? Instead, the Congress took a series of steps short of declaring independence: the delegates signed the “Continental Association,” part of its “Declaration and Resolves,” which included a boycott on British goods, as well as provisions for “non-exportation” of American goods. The Congress planned to resume in the Spring of 1775—a plan that was derailed by the outbreak of war in April 1775.
March 1775: The Second Virginia Convention
When the First Continental Congress adjourned, Henry returned to Virginia. In early 1775, Virginia held its Second Virginia Convention. Henry was among the most strident of the delegates to the Convention, and he pleaded with his fellow delegates to raise a militia, and prepare for war. “The war is inevitable and let it come,” he declared. “I repeat sir, let it come.”
So here are the concluding words to Henry’s speech to the Virginia Convention on March 23, words that have gone down in history as a clarion call to the American colonists to mobilize:
“There is no longer any room for hope. If we wish to be free—if we mean to preserve inviolate those inestimable privileges for which we have been so long contending—if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained—we must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must fight! … Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!”
Henry ended his famous speech with a flourish: he grabbed an ivory-handled paper cutter and, holding it like a knife, pretended to stab himself in the chest.
Some historians debate whether the after-the-fact accounts of Henry’s speech are accurate; there is no transcript of his exact words. Whether entirely correct or not, there is no doubt that Henry’s speech moved his audience: the delegates passed the legislation he was advancing, and Virginians now were authorized to prepare for armed resistance.
So, today we commemorate the 250th anniversary of Henry’s most famous moment, a moment that defined an era, and that persuaded many Americans that war was inevitable, and independence was the goal.
Looking back 400 years, we often read about events that were defining moments in the history of our earliest American settlements, be they the Plymouth Plantation founded by the Pilgrims, New Netherland founded by the Dutch, the Jamestowne Colony, founded by English “adventurers,” and other lesser-known settlements in the frontiers of New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the Southern territories of North America. By the time of the American Revolution, the Virginia Colony had become the largest and most prosperous of our 13 original colonies—but its first few decades were punctuated by moments of terror, death and destruction that we can’t really comprehend today, much less understand how the Jamestowne Colony ever recovered. Most Americans know something about the “Starving Time” of the winter of 1609-10, when colonists resorted to cannibalism in order to survive. That defining event has gone down in history as one of the most sensational moments in early American history. During that horrific winter, most of the population of Jamestowne died, and the Colony was decimated by disease and starvation.
But the worst was yet to come. Over the next decade, the Virginia Company back in England, which held the royal charter to establish a settlement in North America, decided to continue its efforts despite the setback of the Starving Time. Over the next few years, the Company continued to send larger and larger numbers of settlers to the Jamestowne Colony, and those settlers began to take up residence in areas occupied by neighboring Native-American tribes. Tensions mounted as it became increasingly clear to the ruling Native-American tribes in the region, led by the Powhatans, that there would be no stopping the English colonists in their quest for more lands to settle and cultivate. For a time, the white settlers and Native-Americans were able to live in a semblance of peaceful co-existence, and they engaged in various forms of trade for their mutual benefit. Yet, the period from 1610 to 1622 was also a period of apprehension and mutual mistrust. Led by Chief Powhatan (father of the famous Indian princess Pocahontas), several of the neighboring tribes began to quietly prepare for war, and to build up an arsenal by trading their food & furs for the white man’s guns and ammunition.
(contemporaneous engraving of the Massacre of 1622)
By the end of 1621, the tribes were ready to make war, and so they did: in March 1622, they executed a well-orchestrated attack on Jamestowne settlements, killing hundreds of men, women and children, destroying buildings, burning crops, killing livestock and otherwise unleashing mayhem on the colonists. Historians have noted that the warriors were well-armed with muskets and other weapons acquired from the colonists—not just bows and arrows. As was typical of Indian warfare of that time and place, scalpings also occurred. It was a devastating day for the Jamestowne Colony—yet another defining event in the history of early Virginia. Time would tell if the Colony could recover, or whether new immigrants would be willing to sail to Virginia to join a Colony that has just been overrun by blood-thirsty “savages.” When news traveled back to England of the Massacre, many people viewed the situation was hopeless. But the investors in the Virginia Company did not give up: they continued to support the colonization effort, despite the many accusations that the Company’s alleged mismanagement and corrupt practices were somehow responsible for the disaster.
When demands for an investigation of the Virginia Company were made in 1622-23, the Crown decided to appoint a committee to conduct such an investigation. In the meantime, the surviving Jamestowne colonists began the slow effort to recover and rebuild. The scarcity of food and other needed provisions was a major stumbling block. Despite many pleas for assistance, the Virginia Company told the colonists that it was not in a position to help, having drained its financial resources over the course of the past decade, and having the dimmest of prospects of raising new funds from its investors (who had experienced nothing but losses on their investments). By now, the Company was on its last legs.
And so it was that the Jamestowne colonists decided to take stock of their situation, beginning with compiling lists of “the Livinge and Dead in Virginia.” While it’s unclear when the work began on the lists, it likely took some time, as a group of appointed persons painstakingly went from settlement to settlement along the James River, identify who were killed in the Massacre, who had died after the Massacre either as a result of injuries suffered in the attack or otherwise, and who were still living as of the time the lists were created.
The lists were finally issued on February 16, 1623, and they make for chilling reading. The List of the Dead in particular offers a vivid picture of the devastation caused by the Massacre, while the List of the Living gives a glimpse of what life was now like in the various settlements—new colonists who had arrived, new families started, new territories settled, and new plantations established. The List of the Living also reflects that a number of plantations had essentially disappeared—either destroyed or abandoned following the Massacre. To say the least, the colonists who survived and stayed at Jamestowne showed tremendous courage and perseverance. No doubt, one factor in the decision of some of those colonists to stay was that they had nowhere to go, no families to return to in England (some had been sent as young indentured servants, for example), and no hope of a better future back home. And so they stayed. Sadly, today, most of them are no more than names on a list, forgotten souls who lived through the mayhem of the Massacre of 1622, and perhaps died shortly thereafter anyway. Indeed, the death and destruction did not end with the Massacre: the events of 1622 were just the start of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War, which lasted for the next ten years.
Looking at the Lists of the Livinge and the Dead in Virginia,
one can see the vast scope of the killings that took place at various settlements in the Jamestowne Colony. The List of the Dead is arranged by the name of the plantation, settlement, or location of the killings, then the names of the individual settlers who were killed at that various locales. In some cases, there are just first names, or descriptive words such as “negro” (there were not a large number of enslaved persons at Jamestowne in 1622, however). Many of the settlements included families, so one can see husbands and wives, sons and daughters, and other family members listed. Depending on the size of the settlement, the list of names in some cases was quite long, and in others quite small. Below is an example of one of the longer lists of names, for the Martins-Hundred Plantation:
Persons slaine at Martins-Hundred, some seven miles from James-Citie: Lietuenant Rich: Kean, Master Tho: Boise & Mistris Boise, his wife & a sucking Childe, 4 of his men, A Maide, 2 Children, Nathanael Jefferies wife, Margaret Davies, 3 servants, Master John Boise, his wife, A Maide, 4 Men-servants Laurence Wats, his Wife, 2 Men servants Timothy Moise, his Man, Henry Bromage, his Wife, his Daughter, his Man, Edward How, his Wife, his Childe, A child of John Jackson, 4 Men servants, Josua Dary, his wife, Richard Staples, his wife and Childe, 2 Maides, 6 Men and Boyes, Walter Davies & his brother, Christopher Guillam, Thomas Combar, A Man, Ralphe Digginson, his Wife, Richard Cholser, George Jones, Cisby Cooke, his wife, Dauid Bons, John Benner, John Mason, William Pawmet, Thomas Bats, Peter Lighborrow, James Thorley, Robert Walden, Thomas Tolling, John Butler, Edward Rogers, Maximilian Russel, Henry, a Welchman
Note that in almost all cases, the “servants” are unnamed, perhaps reflecting the low value placed upon mere servants in the early years of the Colony. We know, however, that some of these indentured servants were teenage boys with some learning, and some with needed skills, not worthless human beings. Sadly, their names were not preserved, and they are truly forgotten.
What does this defining event mean for us today? First, that the settlement of early America was as much a story of death and destruction as it was a story of conquest. Second, that life was fraught with peril, and tragedy could be visited upon innocent people (Native-Americans included) at any moment. Third, that a clash of cultures was often a root cause of these tragedies, in this case, the clash of Indian and European cultures. Can we learn from this? One hopes that the Jamestowne example can teach us to seek common ground, and not resort to violence. This is certainly true in the case of our current American politics and culture.
So this month, we remember the tragedy of the Massacre of 1622 and its aftermath, as vividly captured in the Lists of the Livinge & Dead in Virginia. And we hope that all of us can pause for a moment in our busy lives and remember those forgotten people who died so violently, and so pointlessly, 400 years ago.
